SEMANTIC ASSIGNMENT

1. What parts does a prototype computer have? Do those parts have parts?

 For me, a prototype computer it has Monitor, Motherboard, CPU, RAM

And CPU has expansion Cards, Power Supply, and Optical Disk Drive

2. The top of a thing is one of its sides: the side that is uppermost. The bottom of a thing is one of its sides: the side that is down. The front is one of the sides: the side that faces forwards. The back is one of its sides, the side that faces away from the front.

What sense relations hold between the words side, top, bottom, front and back? Give reasons to support your answer.

Answer: If the statement is accepted as a reasonable reflection of a competent user of English’s knowledge of meaning, then side is a superordinate for top, bottom, front and back. The statement names the latter four as different kinds of side, and the relation of incompatibility holds between these four hyponyms of side. The “definitions” that follow each colon in the statement consist of the superordinate (side) and a modifier (for example, ‘that is down’), which is the pattern for hyponym meanings. The different modifiers of side are what make the four hyponyms incompatible.

3. Parent is a super-ordinate for mother and father. At the level immediately below parent there are only those two hyponyms. What is the semantic relation between mother and father? Is it incompatibility or antonymy? Justify your answer.

 In here the relationship between mother and father are incompatible. Even father and mother are different gender what I mean in here if we call them like that, they are parent that have same position in family

This is my mother entails This is not my father; This is my father entails This is not my mother; however, we don’t get entailments from the negative sentences to the affirmative ones, for example someone who is not my mother need not be my father, but could be my aunt or cousin or a passing stranger. The term antonymy is reserved for incompatibility between pairs of adjectives or adverbs; mother and father are nouns

4. for class discussion. The following words are hyponyms of footwear: shoes, sneakers, trainers, sandals, slippers, boots, and galoshes.

a. Is footwear the super-ordinate that you use for all of the hyponyms or do you use the word shoe in a general sense that we might distinguish as shoe 1, as the super-ordinate? (After all, the kind of shop that could sell all of them is a shoe shop.)

b. Find as many other hyponyms of footwear (or shoe) as you can.

c. Draw up a hyponym hierarchy, for the given words and any additional ones you have found.

d. Try to provide a brief characterization of the meaning of each word in the hierarchy, in the form of its immediate superordinate plus a modifying phrase.

Answer: Some initial ideas: (a) “We don’t sell marshmallows here; this is a

SHOE shop” would be a memorable objection, but it feels like one that respects the meaning of the word shoe. On the other hand, the following objection would strike me as peculiar in meaning: “? We don’t sell sandals here; this is a SHOE shop.” And it would be just as strange with slippers or boots substituted for sandals. (b) (c) and, in single quotes, (d). Draw an upside down tree with shoes1 (or footwear) ‘clothing for the feet, having a sole’ as the overall superordinate. On three branches below it, put shoes2 ‘footwear covering just the feet’, boots ‘footwear covering feet and ankles, at least’ and sandals ‘ventilated footwear’. Hyponyms dangling from branches below shoes2include clogs ‘wooden shoes’, trainers and sneakers. (Sneakers and trainers are a synonym pair. It should not be hard to supply a concise meaning‘shoes2 for …’). Hyponyms below boots include football boots ‘boots for football’ and gumboots. If you know the word, then jandals‘ water proof minimal sandals’ is a hyponym of sandals. (Jandalsis a New Zealand English word for what many Australians call thongs, which are shower shoes or flip flops to English speakers in some other places.) Galoshes and slippers are some other words to include.

3. In February 2016 a minister government minister announced the resignation of a senior civil servant in his department. According to one report, it was only from listening to the radio on his way back to work from a hospital appointment that the civil servant heard about his own alleged resignation. This led to a question in the media: Who is going to be resigned next? (The question mark at the beginning marks the sentence as semantically odd.) The civil servant eventually resigned in May 2016. Resigning is supposed to be a conscious act performed by the person who quits the post, but if, in talking about the situation described, someone had used the expression ?The minister resigned the civil servant, would the sentence have been causative? Would it have the same meaning as the minister made the civil servant resign?

Answer: Talking about the situation after the civil servant’s resignation – more than two months later – the sentence? The minister resigned the civil servant might be taken as causative, if a correct understanding of it is: ‘an action by the minister directly caused the civil servant to resign’. This situation could be described by the two-clause formulation the minister made (the civil servant resign), because this covers both direct and indirect causation. However, coming so much later it seems more likely that, if it was the minister’s announcement in February that caused the civil servant to resign in May, the causation was indirect. If so, a one-clause sentence? The minister resigned the civil servant would not be an appropriate way to talk about it, because one-clause causatives encode direct causation. Back in February 2002, who is going to be resigned next? was probably not a question meaning ‘Who will be made to resign next?’, but rather a way of catching people’s attention with the ill-formedness of the question as a way of getting them to think about the meaning of the word resign and, from there, to consider the minister’s apparent high-handedness.

3. In February 2016 a minister government minister announced the resignation of a senior civil servant in his department. According to one report, it was only from listening to the radio on his way back to work from a hospital appointment that the civil servant heard about his own alleged resignation. This led to a question in the media: Who is going to be resigned next? (The question mark at the beginning marks the sentence as semantically odd.) The civil servant eventually resigned in May 2016. Resigning is supposed to be a conscious act performed by the person who quits the post, but if, in talking about the situation described, someone had used the expression ?The minister resigned the civil servant, would the sentence have been causative? Would it have the same meaning as the minister made the civil servant resign?

Answer: Talking about the situation after the civil servant’s resignation – more than two months later – the sentence? The minister resigned the civil servant might be taken as causative, if a correct understanding of it is: ‘an action by the minister directly caused the civil servant to resign’. This situation could be described by the two-clause formulation the minister made (the civil servant resign), because this covers both direct and indirect causation. However, coming so much later it seems more likely that, if it was the minister’s announcement in February that caused the civil servant to resign in May, the causation was indirect. If so, a one-clause sentence? The minister resigned the civil servant would not be an appropriate way to talk about it, because one-clause causatives encode direct causation. Back in February 2002, who is going to be resigned next? was probably not a question meaning ‘Who will be made to resign next?’, but rather a way of catching people’s attention with the ill-formedness of the question as a way of getting them to think about the meaning of the word resign and, from there, to consider the minister’s apparent high-handedness.

4. Classify the following as achievements, states, activities or accomplishments: (a) the kid was having a tantrum. (b) The band had a makeover. (c) I caught a cold. (d) Part of the Louvre resembles a pyramid. (e) The music stopped. (f) He got the joke the second time. (g) Khalid played the violin.

 (a) Activity. (b) Accomplishment. (c) Achievement. (d) State. (e)Achievement

Answer: when talking about a single stop, because the following is not an acceptable way of expressing ‘The music waned but continued’: *the music stopped stopping; also because restitutive again works straightforwardly. The music was stopping is unacceptable unless we interpret this as habitual (meaning ‘the music kept stopping’; see Chapter 6) or if it is said with reference to a scheduled stop. On the habitual interpretation, the music stopped is an activity. (f) Achievement. (g) Activity. Yes, the violin is a definite direct object, but not one that delimits the activity: Khalid played the violin does not encode a situation in which he plays until the violin is “finished” (compare Khalid played the sonata).

5. Ministry of Education and Culture told the Indonesian government that they had saved many millions of rupiahs because schools were developing. Think of the sentence in italics as part of a newspaper report (and note that the pronoun they refers to the Indonesian government). Identify the combinations of tense and aspect used in the sentence and draw a diagram to represent the relative timing of the events. Position ‘time of report’ on a time line. Then indicate the positions when ministry of education and culture told the Indonesian government something, when the government saved many millions of rupiahs and when schools developed.

Answer: The verb told is past simple; had saved is past perfect; were developing is past progressive.

 before time of report

––––––––––––––––––––––––––– time of report ––––––––––

The Gov. saves $$$

The co. told the Gov 

6. Think about possible interpretations of the modality in the five sentences below. Can they be understood as deontic, epistemic, both or neither? Give a reason for each answer.

-They must be made from buckwheat.

-We must get up early tomorrow.

-The email needn’t have been sent.

-I can hear you now.

-They might or might not make it.

-You better apologize.

Answer: They must be made from buckwheat can be either deontic (a demand or

strong recommendation that buckwheat be used) or epistemic 

(speaker infers from evidence – color or taste, perhaps – that buckwheat

is an ingredient). We must get up early tomorrow is deontic. What might happen tomorrow is too uncertain to justify epistemic must. The email needn’t have been sent can bear either interpretation: deontically that there was no demand for the sending of the email; epistemically that it is possible that the email has not yet been sent. I can hear you now indicates “capability” (mentioned towards the end of Section 7.1.3): sound level, transmission and reception conditions mean that what is coming from you is now being heard. Some semanticists take this sort of modality as similar to deontic: physics and physiology allow something to happen (paralleling the way an authority’s permission allows something to happen). Others would classify it as dynamic modality (also mentioned in Section 7.1.3). A pointer to the example being an unusual use is the possibility of removing the modal without affecting the meaning much: I hear you now is a paraphrase of I can hear you now. Although it is possible to use might to report permission having been given, Biber et al. (1999: 491) found that almost all instances of might in their large samples of conversational and academic English were epistemic. A deontic interpretation of They might or might not make it is somewhat implausible because it is hard to imagine permission being given for people to succeed or not succeed.

You better apologize is deontic. This is a reduced form of you had better…or you’d better… The idiom had better is not used to express epistemic modality; see Huddleston and Pullum (2002: 196). (One of the reasons for calling this an idiom is that, despite containing the form had, it is not used to talk about the past.)

7. in terms of relative scope, can’t P means ‘not (possibly P)’, deontically as well as epistemically. The same holds for cannot P. What about may not (or mayn’t, if this reduced form is acceptable to you)? They may not have an invitation can be understood either deontically (‘I forbid them having an invitation’) or epistemically (‘Perhaps they do not have an invitation’). What is the scope of negation relative to the scope of modality for these two interpretations?

Answer: Deontic may not is similar to can’t: negation has wider scope: ‘not (possibly (they have an invitation))’. However, epistemic may not (see Example (7.28c)) behaves like mustn’t: modality has wider scope: ‘possibly (not (they have an invitation))’. For the comparison of relative scope, it does not matter that may is represented as ‘possibly’, using the same word as was used for can in Example (7.28b). The meanings of may and can share the notion of possibility, the ‘negative ruled out ‘part of their core meanings in Table 7.1.

8. Few corgis are vegetarian is true provided the proportion of vegetarian corgis is small, in comparison to the number who are no vegetarian. However, few is an ambiguous quantifier. It can also serve as a cardinal quantifier, as when someone who has been asked whether there are many boats in the harbour replies: “No, there are few boats there today”. If possible, write the set theoretic specification for this sentence’s truth conditions. If that is too hard, explain in words the meaning of few when it is a cardinal quantifier.

Answer: In example (7.30c) in the chapter, few was introduced as a proportional quantifier: Few corgis are vegetarian is true provided the proportion of vegetarian corgis is small, in comparison to the number who are non-vegetarian. However, few is an ambiguous quantifier. It can also serve as a cardinal quantifier, as when someone who has been asked whether there are many boats in the harbour replies: “No, there are few boats there today”. If possible, write the set theoretic specification for this sentence’s truth conditions. If that is too hard, explain in words the meaning of few when it is a cardinal quantifier.

10. Pseudo-clefts can be inverted, for example the hammer was what hit the floor. What hit the floor was the hammer. Is the presupposition the same or different? (Hint: start by trying to find a proposition that is both entailed by the hammer was what hit the floor and implicated by the hammer wasn’t what hit the floor That is to say: find out what it presupposes.)

Answer: The presuppositions are the same for a pseudo-cleft and for an inverted pseudo-cleft. The given example presupposes ‘Something hit the floor’.

FUNDAMENTALS OF PSYCHOLOINGUISTICS

SUMMARY OF PSYCHOLOINGUISTICS BOOK

BY

Eva M. Fernandez and

Helen Smith Cairns 

The Creativity of Human Language
Language is a system that allows people immense creativity. This is not the same creativity of people who write essays, fiction, or poetry. Instead, this is the linguistic creativity that is com-mon place to every person who knows a language. The creativity of human language is different from the communication system of any other animal in a number of respects. For one, speakers of a language can create and understand novel sentences for an entire lifetime.  A second important kind of creativity humans possess is that we can use language to communicate anything we can think of. No other animal communication system affords its users such an unlimited range of topics.
Language as Distinct from Speech, Thought, and CommunicationLanguage is the primary communication system for the human species. In ordinary circumstances it is used to convey thoughts through speech. It is a special system, however, that functions independently of speech, thought, and communication.

Speech ought not to be confused with language, though speech is indeed the most frequent mode for transmitting linguistic information.
It is tempting to confuse thought and language, because we verbalize our thoughts using language. The distinction between language and thought (or general intelligence) becomes clear when one considers the many kinds of individuals who can think but cannot communicate through language.
Language is the primary communication system for human beings, but it is not the only way to communicate, so language can be distinguished from communication in general. Many forms of communication are not linguistic; these include non-verbal, mathematical, and aesthetic communication through music or the visual arts. Frequently, language is not used to communicate or transfer information; language can be used aesthetically (consider poetry or song lyrics) or as a means to negotiate social interactions (consider how Yo, whassup! might be the preferred greeting in some contexts but quite inappropriate in others). One of the wonderful things about language is that it can be studied in many dif- ferent ways. Its social, cultural, and aesthetic characteristics can be analyzed independently of one another. In psycholinguistics, however, researchers are primarily concerned with the underlying structure of language as a biologically based characteristic of humans, derived from the human neurological organization and function.

The Distinction between Descriptive and Prescriptive GrammarPeople who teach language are interested in teaching a standardized use of language, the form of a language that is accepted in academic and business circles. We can refer to this type of language as conforming to prescriptive grammar.
Knowing how to adapt to the standard (prescribed) way of speaking or writing is very useful for people conducting a job interview or producing a formal piece of writing. People who study language, in contrast, are interested in what is called descriptive grammar, that is, the language system that underlies ordinary use. 

Linguistic Competence and LinguisticPerformance
When people know a language, they know its grammar and its lexicon. This knowledge is called linguistic competence.
Linguistic performance, in contrast, is the use of such knowledge in the actual processing of sentences, by which we mean their production and comprehension. 

Meta-linguistic awareness The reason these skills are so important is that they are highly correlated with early reading ability. Meta-linguistic skill is the awareness of language as an object, rather than simply as a vehicle for communication. Meta linguistic skills include the ability to appreciate and explain metaphors, puns, and figurative language. The person who is meta-linguistic ally aware is able to think consciously about linguistic objects.

Prosody
An aspect of language controlled by the phonological component is prosody, which could roughly be defined as the rhythm and intonation of speech. With prosody, signed languages and spoken languages are similar in that both have rules to capture regular prosodic characteristics, like the insertion of pauses in sentences, or the grouping of words into rhythmic phrases. Prosodic rules apply to units such as syllables, prosodic words, and intonational (prosodic) phrases. Because these units extend over more than one segment at a time, they are called suprasegmentals

summary of introduction to sociolinguistics

An Introduction to Sociolinguistics

By Ronald Wardhaugh

Summary by : Layalia Faza

An Introduction to Sociolinguistics

By Ronald Wardhaugh

Summary by: Layalia Faza

Here let me summarize this book hope you enjoy guys.

Languages, Dialects, and Varieties

Language variation:

• No two speakers of a language speak exactly the same way

• No individual speaker speaks the same way all the time

Language Varieties Language variety refers to the various forms of language triggered by social factors. Language may changes from region to region, from one social class to another, from individual to individual, and from situation to situation. This actual changes result in the varieties of language.

Dialect

• A language variety, spoken by a speech community that is characterized by systematic features (e.g., phonological, lexical, and grammatical) that distinguish it from other varieties of that same language • Idiolect: the speech variety of an individual speaker

Varieties ü Hudson (1980: 24) a set of linguistic items with similar distribution ü Varieties

• Wardaugh (1988: 20) a specific set of linguistic items or human speech patterns (presumably, sounds, words, grammatical features) which we can uniquely associate with some external factors (presumably, a geographical area and a social group)

LANGUAGE AND DIALECT •

What is the difference between language and dialect?

• Variety is a term used for to replace both terms - Hudson says “a set of linguistic items with similar distribution”

• Variety is some linguistic shared items which can uniquely be associated with some social items

Part of variety are styles register and beliefs

Pidgins and Creoles

Hymes (1971, p. 3) has pointed out that before the 1930s pidgins and creoles were largely ignored by linguists, who regarded them as ‘marginal languages’ at best.

Pidgin is formed because there are different backgrounds in society.

Creole can develop from a pidgin language if a certain social condition come into play

Pidgin	Creoles
No native speaker	Native speaker
Mixing language	Mixed language associated with cultural and often racial mixture
Reduced grammar and vocabulary	Have parents who use pidgin

Lingua Franca

People who speak different languages who are forced into contact with each other must find some way of communicating, a lingua franca.

Lingua franca arguably bridge language that is systematically somewhat tranquil or sometimes opposite used to communicate relaxed in the community. A lingua franca can be spoken in a variety of ways. An example of lingua franca is Swahili.

Codes

Code is communication tools that is variant of language.

Diglossia

A diglossic situation exists in a society when it has two distinct codes which show clear functional separation; that is, one code is employed in one set of circumstances and the other in an entirely different set.

Bilingualism and Multilingualism

Bilingual is a person who can master two languages at once the first language and second language.

Multilingual one who mastered more than two languages.

Monolingual is a person who only master in one language.

Code-Switching

People, then, are usually required to select a particular code whenever they choose to speak, and they may also decide to switch from one code to another or to mix codes even within sometimes very short utterances and thereby create a new code in a process known as code-switching. Code-switching (also called code-mixing) can occur in conversation between speakers’ turns or within a single speaker’s turn.

I gave you an example of code switching

Saya mau membeli high heels di center point.

Higheels in here means that code switching where should be “ sepatu tinggi” but Indonesian people common say it high heels than sepatu tinggi

Speech Repertoire

An individual also has a speech repertoire; that is, he or she controls a number of varieties of a language or of two or more languages. Quite often, many individuals will have virtually identical repertoires. The concept of ‘speech repertoire’ may be most useful when applied to individuals rather than to groups.

In this view each individual has his or her own distinctive verbal repertoire and each speech community in which that person participates has its distinctive speech repertoire; in fact, one could argue that this repertoire is its defining feature.

Like this if A says I am similar to her and B says I am like her.

An Introduction to English Semantic and Pragmatics

An Introduction to English Semantic and Pragmatics

By Patrick Griffiths

Summary by: Layalia Faza

English Study Program , Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Bandar Lampung University

I. STUDYING MEANING

This is book about how English enables people who know the language to convey meanings.
1.1 Semantics and Pragmatics are two main branches of the linguistic study of meaning.
Semantics itself mean that real meaning, Studies meaning in isolation (literal meaning of a sentence). Pragmatics studies meaning in context (intended meaning of a speaker).

SEMANTICS	PRAGMATICS
DOG! Semantics take meaning to be inherent property of language (animal).	DOG! [WARNING] Pragmatics regard meaning as something that is realized in the course of communication.

1.2 Types of meaning
Sender’s meaning is the meaning that the speaker or writer intends to convey by means of an utterance.
Utterance meaning is a necessary fiction that linguists doing semantics and pragmatics have to work it.
Sentence meaning/ literal meaning is meanings that people familiar with the language can agree on for sentences on considered in isolation.

2. Adjective meaning

Adjective meaning a word that describes a noun or pronoun. Adjective meanings are often one dimensional “cruse” (2000: 289)
E.g. little-small. Not big: not much

3. Noun Vocabulary

This chapter outlines ways of describing the complexity, starting with a sense relation that will called the has-relation.
The has-relation every words square, circle, and triangle are also technical terms in geometry, where they have tight definitions. Has relation stated in terms of prototypes.
Prototypes are clear, central members of the denotation of a word.
Prototypes example: Bird (has feathers, has wings)
Parts can have parts.

4. Verbs and situation

This chapter is about verb meaning.
This is the example of causative sentences with entailment from each.

Causatives	Entailments
The good lecturer makes us join in his class.	We are joining in his class.

5. Figurative language

Irony, presuppositions and metonymy
Irony is mode of speech in which the real meaning is exactly the opposite of that what is literally conveyed.
Metonymy a figure of speech in which a word is similar to another substitutes itself for the original.
Presuppositions are implication that are often felt to be in the background- to be assumed by the speaker to be already known to the addressee.

6. Tense and Aspect

Tense

Past tense Present tense Future tense
Simple aspect	Past simple Took	Present simple Take	Future simple Will take
Progressive aspect	Past progressive Was/were taking	Present progressive Am/is/are taking	Future progressive Will be taking
Perfect aspect	Past perfect Had taken	Present perfect Have/has taken	Future perfect Will have taken

Aspect is about inflectional pointers to the position of events relative to the time of utterance. Tense is deictic; aspect is not deictic. Aspect is about grammatical resources for encoding the time profiles of states and events within an interval of time.
Habitually and simple aspect
a. He likes listening to the music nowadays (state)
b. She drinks the green tea nowadays (activity)
c. My mother makes a cake by herself nowadays (accomplishment)
d. The clown pop the balloon nowadays ( achievement)
It’s clear that sentences are about habitual matters.
Progressive aspect
Progressive aspect is marked by BE + Verb-ing , semantically it down plays the onset and ignores the end of an event, focusing instead on its middle phrase(s), presenting it’s as an ongoing activity.
For example: Hurry, the bus is leaving
a. They drew up a contract -> the contract was drawn up
b. They have drawn up a contract -> ditto
c. They were drawing up a contract -> does not entail ditto
Perfect aspect
Its combination auxiliary verb HAVE (have, has or had) in front of the participle form of a verb that marks what is called perfect aspect.
Many linguists have noted that present perfect forms tend not to accept past time adverbial modifiers;
a. *I have arrived yesterday
b. *They go there recently.
c. They went there recently.
d. They have been there recently.
e. They have been there since 1999.
Klein (1992) has pointed out that presebt perfect unexpected accepts members of a small class of past time adverbials, including recently.

7. Modality, Scope and Quantification

Modality is the term for a cluster of meanings centered on the notion of necessity and possibility
a. You must finish it
b. You have to finish it.
c. You mustn’t finish it
d. You don’t have to finish it.
For sentences (a,b) have nearly the same meaning, suggesting that the expressions of modality have to and must be are nearly synonymous. But the related negative sentences are sharply different in meaning (c) is a prohibition, but in Standard English (d) indicates that there is no necessity to report the matter.
The relative scope, the second major topic of the chapter. Relative scope is also needed for understanding quantificational meanings.
Quantifiers are words such as all, some and most.
Modality:
a. You must study
b. You can out there now.
c. He is not able to see you until Monday.
d. Pretending like that, he must be foolish
e. With an open sign on the door, there ought to be someone inside.
f. The water could be brown.
Sentence (a) this family of meanings includes obligations to make a situation come about, indicators of whether or not it is permissible (b) or feasible (c) also included are signals as to how confident the speaker is regarding knowledge of the situation: whether, in the light of available evidence, the proposition seems certain to be true (d) or probably true (e) or merely possibly so (f).
Relative scope
a. You mustn’t provide a receipt
b. You don’t have to provide receipt.
c. You must provide a receipt.
d. You have to provide.
Sentences a,b are sharply different in meaning, but the affirmative sentences c,d that would seem to correspond respectively to a,b are very similar in meaning.
The difference between (a,b) is that (a) sentence indicates that it is necessary for a negative state of affairs to hold (necessity includes the negation within its scope), while the (b) sentence negates a necessity (negation has scope over the necessity)
Quantification
a. No corgis are vegetarian.
b. Several corgis are vegetarian.
c. At least three corgis are vegetarian.
d. Some corgis are vegetarian
e. At least one corgis is a vegetarian

8. Pragmatics

its now time , however, to deal in more detail with the main concepts and principles of pragmatics.
1. Conversational implicatures are inferences that depend on the existence of norms for the use of language, such as the widespread agreement that communicators should aim to tell truth. Implicature arise as much in other speech genres and in writing as they do in conversation; so they are often just called implicatures.)
2. Quality – try to be truthful when communicating
Quantity – give appropriate amounts of information, not too little and not too much.
Manner – utterance should be clear: brief, orderly and not obscure.
Relevance – contributions should be relevant to the assumed current goals of the people involved.
Presuppositions
Presuppositions the shared background assumptions that are taken for granted when we communicate.
Example :
a. The king of France is bald
b. The king of France is not bald
c. Is the king of France is bald?
d. If the king of France is bald, he should wear a heat in the winter
There is a king of France

9. Connecting utterances to the background

Definiteness in noun phrases is a significant aspect of the grammar of English and will be used as a starting point there.

Indefinite	Definite
Determines: a, an, some, another, several, most.	Proper names : Aberdeen, Zoroaster
Indefinite pronouns : something, someone, somebody	Determiners: the, this, that, these, its.
	Personal pronouns: it, they. Them, she, her, his, you, I, me, we, us.

Focal Stress
Focal stress then, is syntactically-located intonational prominence doing semantic or pragmatic signaling work.
I give you an example
A: did you see my BOOK?
B: No, I just saw you PEN.

Intoduction to Literature

This article is focused on English-language literature rather than being limited merely to the literature of England, so that it includes writers from Scotland, the whole of Ireland, and Wales, as well as literature in English from former British colonies, including the US. However, until the early 19th century, it deals with the literature written in English in Britain and Ireland.

What is literature ?
Literature is a mimisis (re-creation) imitation of something. literature is  a term used to describe written and something spoken material.
for instance : 

• anything in print (written)
• too broad but to narrow 
• includes those beyond la belle letters
• excludes the oral literature
• a creative work of which is language 
• literature is for pleasure and service  

Why Is Studying English Literature Important?

Okay, so there are about a thousand things for a teenager, or even a 50-year-old adult, to do in today's wired, 500-channel cable television world. We can watch feature films on our phones or hop in a car and drive a hundred miles away in just a couple of hours. That's not how things used to be. People used to read literature for entertainment because even just 50 years ago, there were simply not many readily available entertainment options.

Despite these other entertainment options, English literature remains popular. It is time-tested and well worn for a reason. English literature deals with universal themes and values that help us grow in our everyday lives. It also teaches us about different time periods and faraway places.

Literature can be classified according to whether it is fiction or non-fiction and whether it is poetry or prose; it can be further distinguished according to major forms such as the novel, short story or drama; and works are often categorized according to historical periods or their adherence to certain aesthetic features or expectations (genre).

Poetry is a form of literary art which uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of language to evoke meanings in addition to, or in place of,prosaic ostensible meaning.

Prose is a form of language that possesses ordinary syntax and natural speech rather than rhythmic structure; in which regard, along with its measurement in sentences rather than lines, it differs from poetry.

Drama is literature intended for performance.

There are fiction, poetry,  prose, drama and etc. 

for this week  i  choose drama  for  further explaining

Drama is literature intended for performance. The form is often combined with music and dance, as in opera and  musical theater.

Drama was introduced to England from Europe by the romans. 

What the function of drama especially for student? 

to improve their performance. 

to improve their ability in written and spoken.

to improve their knowledge.

to make good communication between student and teacher. 

to develop their ability to work in groups, trusting and relying each other. 

to appreciate and respond positively to the part played by others in the drama.

and of course to make them be brave to show their performance in front of people.

 I take an example of a very famous drama

Have you ever heard about Romeo and Juliet ?

The play Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy written by william shakespeare

The story told about two young star-crossed lovers whose deaths ultimately reconcile their feuding families.

This is one of his most frequently performed plays.

Romeo and Juliet belongs to a tradition of tragic romances stretching back to antiquity. 

Introduction To English Linguistics

 Chapter 1

Competences based : you should understand the language. You have knowlegde about language.

Performance based : how you make a speech and how you make percformance infront of people

Grammar : the study of rules of language at variuos levels of structure

Pragmatic : the study of principles specifying how language is used.

Prescriptivist  : prescribe usage : giving – direction make identification

how to make the correct speech or write.  ( for example : teacher)

Descriptivist :  describe the language.  Describe how language is used. ( for example : analytical)

Semantic : the study of meaning in language.

Semiotic : system about sign

Chapter 2

Cognate Vocabulary : vocabulary that languages share having a common origin in an ancestral language.

Genetic classification of language : Indo-European language, West English

Language death : is a type of language shift. However, unlike bilingualism,which involves speaker shifting from one language to another in different contexts, language death occurs when, over time, a language loses all its speaker. The procces  of language death is typically slow, and involves successive generations of speakers abandoning a language until only relatively few people remain as fluent speakers. Once these people die the language dies too.

Shyncronic : try to investigating the language.

Diachronic :  hystory of the language that changes from the past the past untill today.

Tytypological classification based on morphology : Morphologically, language have traditionally been classified as being aglunative, isolating or fusional

Chapter 3

Grammatical meaning vs pragmatic meaning

Grammatical meaning: how words have individual meaning (basedon dictionary)

Pragmanic meaning:  the role that context plays in the enterpretation of what people says.

Sentences vs utterance

Sentence: a grammatical well formed unit that has subject and predicate

Utterance: a linguistics constraction maynot grammatically but has meaning and communicative.

Speech act theory

The difference between saying and doing

Locutionary: just the saying

Illocutionary: make someone do something

Prelocutionary: the effect of locutionary and illocutionary, maybe upset them or there is no effect